Moral Development Theory
Article by Don Alexander
Kohlberg asserts that development occurs through six stages of increasing complexity, from what “might make right decisions” to the recognition of universal ethical principles. A lot of other theorists set out levels of criticisms against it. Kohlberg’s theory seems to be generally valid, and although males and females may analyze moral problems somewhat differently, neither sex is generally more competent at resolving moral dilemmas.
The development of moral actions, attitudes, and arguments is life long from the toddlers grabbing a toy and insisting “Mine!” to the elderly adult establishing a living will(Colby 1999). Early childhood development IS the time most moral behavior and development occur in moral reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg studied the development of moral reasoning by presenting children, adolescents, and adults with a set of hypothetical stories that pose ethical dilemmas. The stories were carefully designed to allow Kohlberg to test how children conceived and reasoned about dilemmas. That involved the conflict between human needs and the value of human life.
Kohlherg found three levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional and post-conventional, with two stages at each level. Certain answers children, adolescence, and adults gave, towards certain dilemmas, were said to he found at each stage. Preconventional puts emphasis on getting rewards and avoiding punishments. Stage one is Punishment and Obedience orientation–at this stage the most important value is obedience to authority in order to avoid punishment, while still advancing self-interest, Stage two is instrumental and relativist orientation–each person tries to take care of his or her own needs. The reason to he nice to other people is so they will be nice to you. Conventional puts emphasis on social rules. Stage three maintains that good behavior is considered behavior that pleases other people and wins their praise. Approval is more important than any specific reward. Stage four asserts that right behavior means being a dutiful citizen and obeying the laws set down by society. Postconventional in this stage puts emphasis on moral principles. Stage five shows that one should obey the rules of society because they exist for the benefit of all and are established by mutual agreement. If the rules become destructive however, or if one party doesn’t live up to the agreement, the contract is no longer binding. Stage six puts forth that general universal principles determine right and wrong. These values are established by individual reflection and may contradict the egocentric or legal principles of earlier reasoning.
A truly excellent teacher will manage their classroom with a variety of excellent techniques When one considers the validity of moral reasoning in the classroom, it is important to remember to treat every child the same, so that the children are viewing a moral model. Having a reward system that includes reasonable punishment is a rather huge benefit to the children. In every classroom there is a set of rules that every child needs to obey. If those rules are allowed to be broken, students will not he able to understand the moral climate of the classroom. It is reasonable to believe that for every action there is a reaction. When students disobey rules, there must be an applicable firm but positive reaction from the teacher. The teacher must come up with quick statements like: “How can I help you obey the rules Sally?” Again, a truly excellent teacher will initiate modeled moral reasoning through a variety of techniques in their classroom if they desire to increase student learning, moral development, and character.
Don Alexander, Published Writer & Online Business Mentorhttp://www.leading-online-business.com“Helping ALL to Succeed”
Question by tmureverwi: development theories seems to have entred a full cycle.Is this the case ?
What we have now is like a recycle of earlier theories. discuss this assertion with reference to the development of planning theory since the 1950′s
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Answer by youngsocrates
I think even all of the previous theories were based on some type of theological, philosophical, or psychoanalytical ideas of the past. I see the modern applications taking into account the effects of the dual income home, as well as the development of the materialism in development. Stage theorists are being shoved out due to the more insurance company pleasing models in my opinion, and since Piaget and Erikson have not been the focus due to a lack of those truly wanting to pursue this in great detail. Just my opinion, hope you find what your looking for, if sop email me, I’d be interested in the answer!
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Theories of Cognitive Development
This speech will address the concept of cognitive development among children as derived from the arguments of Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget. This speech will address students in a high school where it will tackle the comparison and contrast of the two arguments. It will persuade the students to learn how cognitive develops among children and how this influence the adults’ education. In this case, this speech will tackle the issue of how these two theories that are formulated by the above mentioned psychologists affect adolescents in terms of education (Wood, 1998).
Cognitive development is one of the most studied topics in psychology. Many psychologists have come up with different definitions of this concept but this speech will take the definition given by Wood (1998).
According to him, cognitive development is the construction of thought processes which comprise of remembering, finding solutions to problems, and making wise and precise decisions from childhood through adolescence to adulthood. Initially, it was thought that infants did not have the capacity to think or form ideas and hence remained without cognition until the time they start learning a language through socialization. On the other hand, it has now been proven that infants are very much aware of their environments and are interested in exploring these environments form the time they are born. From the time a baby is born, it starts learning by gathering, sorting and processing available information around them. By the use of this information they are able to enhance their perception and thinking techniques. From this comprehension of how infants learn from the environments, cognitive development can be defined as the process of perceiving, thinking, and gaining comprehension of an individual’s world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors. In this case therefore, the theories postulated by Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget are used in describing this phenomenon. Most importantly, the areas that are studied in cognitive development are processing of information, reasoning intelligence, memory and language development (Wadsworth, 1971).
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is one of the most influential theories in the field of psychology. According to this theory, Piaget was mostly interested in how children react to their surroundings. Basically, the Piaget’s cognitive development theory indicates that children’s knowledge is comprised of schemas which are units of intelligence that are utilized to organize past experiences and hence function as a basis for the comprehension of new experiences. On this basis therefore, Piaget believed that children are impacted by their own personal experiences that help them develop cognitively (Wood, 1998).
In this theory, children development of knowledge is modified by two complementary processes that were identified by Piaget as accommodation and assimilation. In this case, assimilation is the process whereby new information is comprehended by being incorporated in an already existing representation. This indicates that children learn or develop their cognition by adding knowledge to their existing or already learned knowledge. Here, through experiences children are able to learn more other new things and hence developing their cognition. Piaget suggested that children assimilate new ideas and thoughts by the process of relating these new ideas to the things they already are aware of. A child will learn a language from the experiences he/she has about that language. On the other hand, the second process postulated by Piaget is accommodation which denotes that in children a schema may change in a way that it accommodates new knowledge. In the process of growing, a child’s representation allows integration of new experiences. Basically, there is a need of balancing the assimilation and accommodation of experiences among children in the process of growing. According to Piaget, this aspect of balancing the two processes of cognitive development is called equilibration (Wadsworth, 1971).
The Piaget’s theory of cognitive development occurs in four different stages where each stage is characterized by progressively more complicated and conceptual levels of thought. Importantly, each stage builds on what was learned in the previous stage. These stages include; infancy, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage (Wood, 1998).
In the infancy or sensorimotor stage, the aspect of intelligence is usually demonstrated through motor activity in absence of the utilization of symbol. The intelligence of a child is restricted but in one way or the other it improves and develops as it is based on the physical interactions through socialization and experiences. According to Piaget, children are capable of acquiring memory at the age of seven months. In this case, the aspect of physical mobility enhances the children in improving new intellectual capabilities. At the end of this stage, language capabilities are usually improved in children (Wadsworth, 1971).
On the other hand, the pre-operational stage also known as toddlerhood and early childhood has two sub stages. In this case, intelligence is illustrated by the utilization of symbols like language. Basically, memory and imagination are typically improved while as thinking occurs in non-rational and non-reversible manner. The child builds his/her intelligence from the experiences of the first stage. According to Piaget, this stage of cognitive development is predominated by insensitive thinking (Wadsworth, 1971).
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Question by : What is some new research on social development theories in Psychology?
What is some new research on social development theories in Psychology?
Best answer:
Answer by Miguel Lahunken
There are the fifth and sixth dimension to take into consideration; the fifth dimension into the Underworld, and, the sixth dimension across probability time lines:
It is said that Jesus “descended into Hell and on the third day arose from the dead”. Crucifixion forces what is called today “holotropic breathing”. Dr. Stanislav Grof replaced LSD with holotropic breathing. LSD awakens brain use beyond the normal 10% by blocking the inhibitory neurons.
Holotropic breathing, and other muscarinic nervous system stimulations, awaken the brain by overriding the inhibitory neurons. The neurons of the parasympathetic nervous system are called “muscarinic” for their stimuilation overriding the inhibitory neurons like the hallucinary drug muscarine.
The major plexuses are called “chakras” in yoga. Stimulation, called “kundalini” in yoga, spreads in any particular nervous system. In the case of the muscarinic nervous system the stimulation spreads to the brain and there awakens more the 10% brain use.
The biggest muscarinic nerve is the vagus nerve. It doesn’t pass through the spine, but, its main trunk emerges from the brain in the roof of the nasopharynx. Advanced yogins have cut the ligature that holds their tongues down so they can put their tongues up the back of their noses.
This act is called the “khechari mudra”, in English, the “fig gesture”. This act causes so much vagal stimulation that the heart stops by vagal syncope. The yogin can then stay in suspended animation for any chosen length of time and voluntarily withdraw his tongue to “resurrect”.
The blood stays oxygenated during the khechari mudra. Houdini did this in some of his feats. But, with the “water board” of the Gitmo Baptism, the intent is to fill the nasopharynx with water, enough just to put the candidate for initiation into what Dr. Stanislav Grof called “perinatal matrix three”.
Is there any other Hell? Very often those who resurrected from what seemed to witnesses as death, had a homeopathic reaction from death such that the brain woke up with more than its normal 10% use, so that, this actually “hyperlife” state was called, the world of the dead, the Underworld, Hell, etc.
The mind is very powerful to materialize its visualizations as reality in the Underworld. Can anyone control all their thoughts? Things go wrong. as soon as the candidate wishes he were someone else, “zap” he body switches into that someone else, where he no longer has the more than 10% brain use, and is weak again.
But, he doesn’t belong in anyone elses body, so, as soon as that body sleeps or dies, it’s into another body he goes. And, on and on and on, going backward and forward in time in body after body, into everyone he has ever seen, for about a hundred years duration.
This was called the “aioniu amartematos”, an aeon of failure”, in the original Greek Bible, translated into English “etenrnal damnation”. But, Jesus Christ, being God, body switched into everyone who ever was or ever will be, and on every probability timeline. That’s why He is always in you and I. This is real.
The awakened brain accesses the multidimensional universe that people with only 10% brain use, at any time, are unaware of. It doesn’t have to be that extreme. Perinatal matrix one is euphoric. In perinatal matrix two, the “Knowledge of Good and Evil”, as one goes into this fifth dimensional direction, the brain gets more and more powerful to travel in the sixth dimension to the probability timelines corresponding to imagination.
Dr. Stanislav Grof, in his “Adventure of Self Discovery” said that this was the real sacrament of Baptism, but, it was also what Adam and Eve did with each other, “eating” the fruit of the Knowledge of Good and Evil” that constituted the “original sin” so that the Cathars made this thier sacrament of “Unbaptism”.
Other related stimulations are condemned as “witchcraft”, called in the Koran “blowing on knots”. It’s all how far you go that determines its arbitrary worth to various classes of society. It has been the most suppressed secret in the world. Dr. Grof is the first to get away with making it somewhat public. But, every Christian has the right to understand the crucifixion. It must be common public knowledge for justice.
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Theory Of Cognitive Development
The Nature of Intelligence: Operative and Figurative Intelligence
Piaget believed that reality is a dynamic system of continuous change, and as such is defined in reference to the two conditions that define dynamic systems that change. Specifically, he argued that reality involves transformations and states. Transformations refer to all manners of changes that a thing or person can undergo. States refer to the conditions or the appearances in which things or persons can be found between transformations. For example, there might be changes in shape or form (for instance, liquids are reshaped as they are transferred from one vessel to another, humans change in their characteristics as they grow older), in size (e.g., a series of coins on a table might be placed close to each other or far apart) in placement or location in space and time (e.g., various objects or persons might be found at one place at one time and at a different place at another time). Thus, Piaget argued, that if human intelligence is to be adaptive, it must have functions to represent both the transformational and the static aspects of reality. He proposed that operative intelligence is responsible for the representation and manipulation of the dynamic or transformational aspects of reality and that figurative intelligence is responsible for the representation of the static aspects of reality).
Operative intelligence is the active aspect of intelligence. It involves all actions, overt or covert, undertaken in order to follow, recover, or anticipate the transformations of the objects or persons of interest. Figurative intelligence is the more or less static aspect of intelligence, involving all means of representation used to retain in mind the states (i.e., successive forms, shapes, or locations) that intervene between transformations. That is, it involves perception, imitation, mental imagery, drawing, and language. Therefore, the figurative aspects of intelligence derive their meaning from the operative aspects of intelligence, because states cannot exist independently of the transformations that interconnect them. Piaget believed that the figurative or the representational aspects of intelligence are subservient to its operative and dynamic aspects, and therefore, that understanding essentially derives from the operative aspect of intelligence.
At any time, operative intelligence frames how the world is understood and it changes if understanding is not successful. Piaget believed that this process of understanding and change involves two basic functions: Assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation refers to the active transformation of information so as to be integrated into the mental schemes already available. Its analog at the biological level might be the transformation of food by chewing and digestion to fit in with the structural and bio-chemical characteristics of the human body. Accommodation refers to the active transformation of these schemes so as to take into account the particularities of the objects, persons, or events the thinker is interacting with. Its analog at the biological level might be the adaptation of eating and digestion to the particulars of the different kinds of food we eat. For Piaget, none of these functions can exist without the other. To assimilate an object into an existing mental scheme, one first needs to take into account or accommodate to the particularities of this object to a certain extend; for instance, to recognize (assimilate) an apple as an apple one needs first to focus (accommodate) on the contour of this object. To do this one needs to roughly recognize the size of the object. We will see below that development increases the balance or equilibration between these two functions. When in balance with each other, they generate mental schemes of the operative intelligence. When the one dominates over the other, they generate representations which belong to figurative intelligence.
Following from this conception Piaget theorized that intelligence is active and constructive. In fact, it is active even in the literary sense of the term as it depends on the actions (overt or covert, assimilatory or accommodatory), which the thinker executes in order to build and rebuild his models of the world. And it is constructive because actions, particularly mental actions, are coordinated into more inclusive and cohesive systems and thus they are raised to ever more stable and effective levels of functioning. Piaget believed that this process of construction leads to systems of mental operations better able to resist the illusions of perceptual appearances and thus less prone to error. In other words, the gradual construction of the system of mental operations involved in the operative aspect of intelligence enables the developing person to grasp ever more hidden and complex aspects of the world. Below we will summarize the development of operative intelligence.
Piaget’s four stages
According to Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, intelligence is the basic mechanism of ensuring equilibrium in the relations between the person and the environment. This is achieved through the actions of the developing person on the world. At any moment in development, the environment is assimilated in the schemes of action that are already available and these schemes are transformed or accommodated to the peculiarities of the objects of the environment, if they are not completely appropriate. Thus, the development of intelligence is a continuous process of assimilations and accommodations that lead to increasing expansion of the field of application of schemes, increasing coordination between them, increasing interiorization, and increasing abstraction. The mechanism underlying this process of increasing abstraction, interiorization, and coordination is reflecting abstraction. That is, reflecting abstraction gradually leads to the rejection of the external action components of sensorimotor operations on objects and to the preservation of the mental, planning or anticipatory, components of operation. These are the mental operations that are gradually coordinated with each other, generating structures of mental operations. These structures of mental operations are applied on representations of objects rather than on the objects themselves. Language, mental images, and numerical notation are examples of representations standing for objects and thus they become the object of mental operations. Moreover, mental operations, with development, become reversible. For instance, the counting of a series of objects can go both forward and backward with the understanding that the number of objects counted is not affected by the direction of counting because the same number can be retrieved both ways. Piaget described four main periods in the development towards completely reversible equlibrated thought structures. These are the periods described below. As shown below, for Piaget intelligence is not the same at different ages. It changes qualitatively, attaining increasingly broader, more abstract, and more equlibrated structures thereby allowing access to different levels of organization of the world.
Sensorimotor period
The Sensorimotor Stage is the first of the four stages of cognitive development. “In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions.” “Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on it.” “An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.” “Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages”:
Sub-Stage
Age
Description
1 Simple Reflexes
Birth-6 weeks
“Coordination of sensation and action through reflexive behaviors”. Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth, following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). Over the first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions; for example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping.).
2 First habits and primary circular reactions phase
6 weeks-4 months
“Coordination of sensation and two types of schemes: habits (reflex) and primary circular reactions (reproduction of an event that initially occurred by chance). Main focus is still on the infant’s body.” As an example of this type of reaction, an infant might repeat the motion of passing their hand before their face. Also at this phase, passive reactions, caused by classical or operant conditioning, can begin.
3 Secondary circular reactions phase
4-8 months
Development of habits. “Infants become more object-oriented, moving beyond self-preoccupation; repeat actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results.” This stage is associated primarily with the development of coordination between vision and prehension. Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary circular reactions, and differentiations between ends and means. At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of a desired object, often to the amusement of friends and family. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external object begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation between means and ends also occurs. This is perhaps one of the most important stages of a child’s growth as it signifies the dawn of logic.
4 Coordination of secondary circular reactions stage
8-12 months
“Coordination of vision and touch–hand-eye coordination; coordination of schemes and intentionality.” This stage is associated primarily with the development of logic and the coordination between means and ends. This is an extremely important stage of development, holding what Piaget calls the “first proper intelligence.” Also, this stage marks the beginning of goal orientation, the deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective .
5 Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity
12-18 months
“Infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things they can make happen to objects; they experiment with new behavior.” This stage is associated primarily with the discovery of new means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this juncture as the “young scientist,” conducting pseudo-experiments to discover new methods of meeting challenges .
6 Internalization of Schemes
18-24 months
“Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols and form enduring mental representations.” This stage is associated primarily with the beginnings of insight, or true creativity. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage.
“By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the self and permanent.” “Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.” “Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant’s most important accomplishments, according to Piaget.”
Preoperational Period
The Preoperative stage is the second of four stages of cognitive development. By observing sequences of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that towards the end of the second year, a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs.
(Pre)Operatory Thought is any procedure for mentally acting on objects. The hallmark of the preoperational stage is sparse and logically inadequate mental operations. During this stage, the child learns to use and to represent objects by images, words, and drawings. The child is able to form stable concepts as well as mental reasoning and magical beliefs. The child however is still not able to perform operations; tasks that the child can do mentally rather than physically. Thinking is still egocentric: The child has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. Two substages can be formed from preoperative thought.
The Symbolic Function Substage
Occurs between about the ages of 2 and 4. The child is able to formulate designs of objects that are not present. Other examples of mental abilities are language and pretend play. Although there is an advancement in progress, there are still limitations such as egocentrism and animism. Egocentrism occurs when a child is unable to distinguish between their own perspective and that of another person’s. Children tend to pick their own view of what they see rather than the actual view shown to others. An example is an experiment performed by Piaget and Barbel Inhelder. Three views of a mountain are shown and the child is asked what a traveling doll would see at the various angles; the child picks their own view compared to the actual view of the doll. Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities. An example is a child believing that the sidewalk was mad and made them fall down.
The Intuitive Thought Substage
Occurs between about the ages of 4 and 7. Children tend to become very curious and ask many questions; begin the use of primitive reasoning. There is an emergence in the interest of reasoning and wanting to know why things are the way they are. Piaget called it the intuitive substage because children realize they have a vast amount of knowledge but they are unaware of how they know it. Centration and conservation are both involved in preoperative thought. Centration is the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic compared to the others. Centration is noticed in conservation; the awareness that altering a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties. Children at this stage are unaware of conservation. They are unable to grasp the concept that a certain liquid can stay the same regardless of the container shape. In Piaget’s most famous task, a child is represented with two identical beakers containing the same amount of liquid. The child usually notes that the beakers have the same amount of liquid. When one of the beakers is poured into a taller and thinner container, children who are typically younger than 7 or 8 years old say that the two beakers now contain a different amount of liquid. The child simply focuses on the height and width of the container compared to the general concept. Piaget believes that if a child fails the conservation-of-liquid task, it is a sign that they are at the preoperational stage of cognitive development. The child also fails to show conservation of number, matter, length, volume, and area as well. Another example is when a child is shown 7 dogs and 3 cats and asked if there are more dogs than cats. The child would respond positively. However when asked if there are more dogs than animals, the child would once again respond positively. Such fundamental errors in logic show the transition between intuitiveness in solving problems and true logical reasoning acquired in later years when the child grows up.
Piaget considered that children primarily learn through imitation and play throughout these first two stages, as they build up symbolic images through internalized activity.
Studies have been conducted among other countries to find out if Piaget’s theory is universal. Psychologist Patricia Greenfield conducted a task similar to Piaget’s beaker experiment in the West African nation of Senegal. Her results stated that only 50 percent of the 10-13 year old understood the concept of conservation. Other cultures such as central Australia and New Guinea had similar results. If adults had not gained this concept, they would be unable to understand the point of view of another person. There may have been discrepancies in the communication between the experimenter and the children which may have altered the results. It has also been found that if conservation is not widely practiced in a particular country, the concept can be taught to the child and training can improve the child’s understanding. Therefore, it is noted that there are different age differences in reaching the understanding of conservation based on the degree to which the culture teaches these tasks.
Concrete operational stage
The Concrete operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the Preoperational stage, occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important processes during this stage are:
Seriationhe ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.
Transitivity- The ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial order, and perform ‘transitive inferences’ (for example, If A is taller than B, and B is taller than C, then A must be taller than C).
Classificationhe ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another.
Decenteringhere the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup.
Reversibilityhe child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4+4 equals t, t4 will equal 4, the original quantity.
Conservationnderstanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items.
Elimination of Egocentrismhe ability to view things from another’s perspective (even if they think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box, leaves the room, and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child in the concrete operations stage will say that Jane will still think it’s under the box even though the child knows it is in the drawer. (See also False-belief task).
Children in this stage can, however, only solve problems that apply to actual (concrete) objects or events, and not abstract concepts or hypothetical tasks.
Formal operational stage
The formal operational period is the fourth and final of the periods of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the Concrete Operational stage, commences at around 11 years of age (puberty) and continues into adulthood. In this stage, individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusio
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Question by JaneDoe: What is the literature that I need to look into to know about available international development theories?
I’m in the process of writing a PhD proposal on poverty and international development theories. I’ve been advised to do go through available literature on international development theories, but don’t quite know what to look into. Any ideas?
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Answer by Hubris252
Some journals you should look at are JIPE, JITED, AER
If you are writing a PhD proposal you should already know what those are
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